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The Woozle effect, also known as evidence by citation,〔.〕 or a woozle, occurs when frequent citation of previous publications that lack evidence misleads individuals, groups and the public into thinking or believing there is evidence, and nonfacts become urban myths and factoids. ==Origin of the term, definition of the effect, and related notions == A Woozle is an imaginary character in the A. A. Milne book Winnie-the-Pooh, published in 1926. In chapter three, "In Which Pooh and Piglet Go Hunting and Nearly Catch a Woozle", Winnie-the-Pooh and Piglet start following tracks left in snow believing they are the tracks of a Woozle. The tracks keep multiplying until Christopher Robin explains to them that they have been following their own tracks in circles around a tree. Prior to the introduction of the specific term “Woozle effect”, the underlying research phenomenon (and connection to the Woozle) dates back over 60 years. Bevan (1953), writing about scientific methodology and research errors in the field of psychology, uses the term “scientific woozle hunters”. Wohlwill (1963) refers to a “hunt for the woozle” in social science research, and Stevens (1971) cautions readers about woozles in the study of a misquoted letter. According to Richard J. Gelles, the term "woozle effect" was coined by Beverly Houghton in 1979.〔 〕 Other researchers have attributed the term to Gelles (1980) and Gelles and Murray A. Straus (1988). Gelles and Straus argue that the woozle effect describes a pattern of bias seen within social sciences and which is identified as leading to multiple errors in individual and public perception, academia, policy making and government. A woozle is also a claim made about research which is not supported by original findings. According to Dutton, a woozle effect, or a woozle, occurs when frequent citation of previous publications that lack evidence mislead individuals, groups and the public into thinking or believing there is evidence, and non-facts become urban myths and factoids.〔 The creation of woozles is often linked to the changing of language from qualified ("it may", "it might", "it could") to absolute form ("it is") firming up language and introducing ideas and views not held by an original author or supported by evidence. Winningham and Barton-Burke (2000) argue that "slavish worship" of political correctness contributes to the woozle effect. Dutton sees the woozle effect as an example of confirmation bias and links it to belief perseverance and groupthink.〔 Due to the fact that in the social sciences empirical evidence may be based on experiential reports rather than objective measurements, there may be a tendency for researchers to align evidence with expectation. According to Dutton it is also possible that the social sciences may be likely to align with contemporary views and ideals of social justice, leading to bias in favor of those ideals.〔 Gambrill (2012) links the woozle effect to the processes that create pseudoscience. Gambrill and Reiman (2011) also link it with more deliberate propaganda techniques; they also identify introductory phrases like “Every one knows …”, “It is clear that …”, “It is obvious that …”, “It is generally agreed that …” as alarm bells that what follows might be an Woozle line of reasoning. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Woozle effect」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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